海事司法体制的回顾与评价
倪 学 伟
海事司法体制是国家统一司法体制的有机组成部分,以海事法院对海事侵权纠纷、海商合同纠纷等案件依法审理和判决的诉讼活动为主要特色。随着加入WTO后海事审判重要作用的日渐凸显,回顾和客观评价海事司法体制已显得十分必要和迫切。
一、海事司法体制的历史回顾
滥觞于1984年6月1日的我国海事司法体制,以大连、天津、青岛、上海、广州和武汉六家海事法院的成立为标志;其后,又有海口、厦门、宁波和北海四家海事法院相继成立。十八年来,随着海事审判和海事法院的持续发展,截至1999年8月19日以北海海事法院的挂牌成立为标志,我国业已形成了分布合理、管辖区域覆盖中国沿海地区和长江水域的“海事司法网络”,从而基本完成了具有中国特色的海事司法体制雏形的构建。
海事法院成立伊始,全国人大常委会及最高人民法院即对其体制问题作了概括性规定,其后又作了若干补充。总体而言,我国海事司法体制具有以下特征:
1、最高人民法院民四庭负责监督指导全国海事法院审判工作。
1987年3月31日最高人民法院设立交通运输审判庭,负责对全国海事审判工作的监督指导。其具体职责是:作为最高人民法院的业务审判庭,负责审理在全国范围内有重大影响的重大、疑难海商、海事第一审案件;审理各高级人民法院作为第一审的海商、海事上诉案件;审理经最高人民法院终审的海商、海事再审案件。同时,交通运输审判庭作为最高人民法院的职能庭室,代表最高人民法院行使监督指导权,即监督各高级人民法院、各海事法院海商、海事一、二审案件的审判工作;指定跨省、自治区、直辖市或跨海域的海商、海事方面的案件管辖;协调海事法院与地方各级法院及与其他部门之间的工作关系;对海商、海事审判工作进行调查研究,总结经验,指导审判实践。交通运输审判庭成立以来,创造性地完成了以上工作,而最杰出的成果则是实际主持起草了《海事诉讼特别程序法》,这是新中国第一部以最高人民法院名义起草并获通过的法律。随着新世纪大民事审判格局的确立,交通运输审判庭更名为民事审判第四庭,其职能作了相应调整,但对海事审判的监督指导功能不但没有改变,相反,该功能还相应地得以强化。
2、海事法院所在地的各高级人民法院是海商、海事案件的二审法院,并对各海事法院的审判工作进行监督指导。
我国海事司法体制的现行建制是“三级二审终审制”,海事法院的级别相当于中级法院,不设海事基层法院,其上诉审法院为其所在地的各高级人民法院。目前一般是在有关高级人民法院民四庭设一个组,负责海商、海事案件的二审工作,同时也负责本辖区内有重大影响的海商、海事案件一审工作(但实践中一审案件都由海事法院负责)。在监督指导方面,高级法院主要是根据法律法规及最高人民法院的司法解释,给予海事法院以审判监督和指导。监督和指导的形式既可能是发布书面的规范性文件,如广西区高级人民法院就北海海事法院收案范围而面向全区各法院所发的文件,也可能是口头形式进行直接的监督指导。
3、海事法院负责辖区内的海商、海事案件一审工作,并接受所在地高级人民法院和最高人民法院的监督指导。
随着北海海事法院在1999年8月19日的挂牌成立,我国沿海主要的省、自治区和直辖市都设立了海事法院。海事法院之多,为实现2010年成为亚太地区海事司法中心之一的目标奠定了物质上的基础。
本着机构设置和人员配置都力求精简的原则,海事法院内一般设有告申庭、海商庭、海事庭、执行庭、政治部、办公室、研究室和法警队等机构,人员配置大约为40人至60人。1984年成立的六家海事法院,由中央委托交通部组建,并由交通部所属的港航部门作为代管单位进行管理,形成了行政主管部门甚至于企业管理海事法院的体制(1990年后成立的四家海事法院不存在这种体制问题)。这一体制是特定历史时期的产物,起到过积极作用,但终究与世人仰慕的法治原则及科学审判规律相悖,1999年6月,已将这六家海事法院纳入海事司法体系,成建制地移交给所在省、直辖市党委和高级人民法院共同管理,彻底与交通部门及其所属企业脱钩。这一改良是及时的(抑或太迟了一点)和必要的,否则司法独立从体制上即失去了保证,其裁判即便公正也难服人心,法治国家的进程必受阻滞。
海事法院的收案范围由最高人民法院规定,现行的是2001年8月9日公布并于9月18日起施行的《关于海事法院受理案件范围的若干规定》,这是我国因应加入WTO的现实而采取的一项重大司法举措。具体收案范围是海事侵权纠纷案件10种、海商合同纠纷案件22种、其他海商、海事纠纷案件26种、海事执行案件5种。随着航运业的发展,海事法院的收案范围将会增加。海事法院审理案件,程序上适用《海事诉讼特别程序法》和《民事诉讼法》,实体上适用《海商法》、《合同法》、《民法通则》等。
二、海事司法体制的一般评价
在我国,海事审判已成为与刑事审判、行政审判并驾齐驱的一种审判体制,是民事审判中颇具特色的一种审判制度,是我国统一司法体制不可或缺的组成部分。在古代中国,以刑民不分为审判体制的特色之一,这是与商品经济极度不发达相联系的。随着经济的进步与发达,审判门类的细化并趋于专业化已成为一种发展方向。海事审判的出现并使其地位得以巩固,正是这一发展方向的结果之一。
作为世界上少数几个专门设立海事法院的国家之一,我国的海事法院是改革开放的成果,同时又对改革开放起到了巨大的推动作用。新中国法院成立伊始,即有了海事审判的实践,但因客观原因,这种实践只是零星的、非独立的(融于民事审判之中)和不自觉的。始自1979年的改革开放运动,极大地推动了国际贸易和远洋运输业的发展,海商、海事案件层出不穷,普通法院囿于自身的性质或局限而对这类案件的审理力不从心,迫切需要专门法院的加盟介入。1984年首批六家海事法院的成立,正是这一形势发展的合理结果。海事法院审判案件,以事实为依据,以法律为准绳,严密保护中外当事人的合法权益,从而建创了优良的海事法律软环境,在国际上树立了公正司法的形象。二十年来,我国对外贸易、远洋运输、船员劳务输出、造船业及相关产业迅速发展,国际海上贸易量和提供国际航运船舶吨位位居世界前八位至前五位,我国已成为公认的海洋大国、航运大国。对此,海事法院功不可没。
海事法院成立十八年来,培养了一支优秀的海事法官队伍,摸索出了一整套海事审判经验。高素质的人才储备是培养优秀法官队伍的基础。海事法官大多来源于高等法律院校、海事大学的优秀毕业生及其他法院有丰富经验的审判人员,其中具有硕士学位者或在读硕士研究生超过百人。最高人民法院1998年9月派出六名海事法官去英国学习考察海事审判制度,并自1999年开始三年内安排120名海事法官上远洋船学习航海及运输知识,效果令人鼓舞。十八年来,海事法院摸索出了一整套既适合中国国情又符合海事审判特点的审判经验,这些审判经验有的表现为最高人民法院的司法解释,有的是海事法院的工作简报或内部规定,有的则以海事法官的调研论文形式出现。此经验十分宝贵,尽管我国作为成文法系国家,原则上不允许法官造法,但审判经验的提炼、总结,现实地促进了审判质量和效率的提高,有利于成文法的完善与发展。《海事诉讼特别程序法》即有相当一部分内容是这种审判经验法律化、条文化的结果。
地址:广西北海海事法院 倪学伟
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中华人民共和国水下文物保护管理条例(附英文)
国务院
中华人民共和国水下文物保护管理条例(附英文)
1989年10月20日,国务院
第一条 为了加强水下文物保护工作的管理,根据《中华人民共和国文物保护法》的有关规定,制定本条例。
第二条 本条例所称水下文物,是指遗存于下列水域的具有历史、艺术和科学价值的人类文化遗产:
(一)遗存于中国内水、领海内的一切起源于中国的、起源国不明的和起源于外国的文物;
(二)遗存于中国领海以外依照中国法律由中国管辖的其他海域内的起源于中国的和起源国不明的文物;
(三)遗存于外国领海以外的其他管辖海域以及公海区域内的起源于中国的文物。
前款规定内容不包括一九一一年以后的与重大历史事件、革命运动以及著名人物无关的水下遗存。
第三条 本条例第二条第(一)、(二)项所规定的水下文物属于国家所有,国家对其行使管辖权;本条例第二条第(三)项所规定的水下文物,国家享有辨认器物物主的权利。
第四条 国家文物局主管水下文物的登记注册、保护管理以及水下文物的考古勘探和发掘活动的审批工作。
地方各级文物行政管理部门负责本行政区域水下文物的保护工作,会同文物考古研究机构负责水下文物的确认和价值鉴定工作。对于海域内的水下文物,国家文物局可以指定地方文物行政管理部门代为负责保护管理工作。
第五条 根据水下文物的价值,国务院和省、自治区、直辖市人民政府可以依据《中华人民共和国文物保护法》第二章规定的有关程序,确定全国或者省级水下文物保护单位、水下文物保护区,并予公布。
在水下文物保护单位和水下文物保护区内,禁止进行危及水下文物安全的捕捞、爆破等活动。
第六条 任何单位或者个人以任何方式发现本条例第二条第(一)、(二)项所规定的水下文物,应当及时报告国家文物局或者地方文物行政管理部门;已打捞出水的,应当及时上缴国家文物局或者地方文物行政管理部门处理。
任何单位或者个人以任何方式发现本条例第二条第(三)项所规定的水下文物,应当及时报告国家文物局或者地方文物行政管理部门;已打捞出水的,应当及时提供国家文物局或者地方文物行政管理部门辨认、鉴定。
第七条 水下文物的考古勘探和发掘活动应当以文物保护和科学研究为目的。任何单位或者个人在中国管辖水域进行水下文物的考古勘探或者发掘活动,必须向国家文物局提出申请,并提供有关资料。未经国家文物局批准,任何单位或者个人不得以任何方式私自勘探或者发掘。
外国国家、国际组织、外国法人或者自然人在中国管辖水域进行水下文物的考古勘探或者发掘活动,必须采取与中国合作的方式进行,其向国家文物局提出的申请,须由国家文物局报经国务院特别许可。
第八条 任何单位或者个人经批准后实施水下文物考古勘探或者发掘活动,活动范围涉及港务监督部门管辖水域的,必须报请港务监督部门核准,由港务监督部门核准划定安全作业区,发布航行通告。
第九条 任何单位或者个人实施水下文物考古勘探或者发掘活动时,还必须遵守中国其他有关法律、法规,接受有关部门的管理;遵守水下考古、潜水、航行等规程,确保人员和水下文物的安全;防止水体的环境污染,保护水下生物资源和其他自然资源不受损害;保护水面、水下的一切设施;不得妨碍交通运输、渔业生产、军事训练以及其他正常的水面、水下作业活动。
第十条 保护水下文物有突出贡献,符合《中华人民共和国文物保护法》第二十九条各项规定情形的,给予表彰、奖励。
违反本条例第五条、第六条、第七条的规定,破坏水下文物,私自勘探、发掘、打捞水下文物,或者隐匿、私分、贩运、非法出售、非法出口水下文物,具有《中华人民共和国文物保护法》第三十条、第三十一条各项规定情形的,依法给予行政处罚或者追究刑事责任。
违反本条例第八条、第九条的规定,造成严重后果的,由文物行政管理部门会同有关部门责令停止作业限期改进或者给予撤销批准的行政处罚,可以并处一千元至一万元的罚款。
第十一条 本条例由国家文物局负责解释。
第十二条 本条例的实施细则由国家文物局制定。
第十三条 本条例自发布之日起施行。
REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA CONCERNING THE AD-MINISTRATION OF THE WORK FOR THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL RELICS
Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)
REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA CONCERNING THE AD-
MINISTRATION OF THE WORK FOR THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL RELICS
(Promulgated by Decree No. 42 of the State Council of the People's
Republic of China on October 20, 1989 and effective as of the date of
promulgation)
Article 1
These Regulations are formulated in accordance with the pertinent
provisions of the Law of the People's Republic of China for the Protection
of Cultural Relics for the purpose of strengthening the administration of
the work for the protection of underwater cultural relics.
Article 2
The term "underwater cultural relics" referred to in these Regulations
denotes the human cultural heritage that has historic, artistic and
scientific values and that remains in the following waters:
(1) all the cultural relics of Chinese origin, or of unidentified origin,
or of foreign origin that remain in the Chinese inland waters and
territorial waters;
(2) cultural relics that are of Chinese origin or of unidentified origin
that remain in sea areas outside the Chinese territorial waters but under
Chinese jurisdiction according to the Chinese law;
(3) cultural relics of Chinese origin that remain in sea areas outside the
territorial waters of any foreign country but under the jurisdiction of a
certain country, or in the high seas. The provisions in the preceding
paragraphs shall not cover objects that have remained underwater since
1911 that have nothing to do with important historical events,
revolutionary movements or renowned personages.
Article 3
The ownership of the underwater cultural relics specified in Paragraphs
(1) and (2) of Article 2 of these Regulations shall reside in the state
and the state shall exercise jurisdiction over them; with respect to
underwater cultural relics specified in Paragraphs (3) of Article 2 of
these Regulations, the state shall have the right to identify the owners
of the objects.
Article 4
The State Administration for Protection of Cultural Relics shall be the
competent authority in charge of the registration of underwater cultural
relics, of the administration of the protection thereof, and of the work
of examination and approval concerning the archaeological exploration and
excavation activities with respect to underwater cultural relics.
Administrative departments for cultural relics at various levels in the
localities shall be in charge of the protection of the underwater cultural
relics in their respective administrative regions and shall, in
conjunction with the archaeological and research institutions for cultural
relics, be in charge of the work to identify and assess the value of
underwater cultural relics. With respect to underwater cultural relics in
sea waters, the State Administration for Protection of Cultural Relics may
designate the administrative departments for cultural relics in the
localities to be in charge of the administration of the work for the
protection of underwater cultural relics.
Article 5
On the basis of the value of underwater cultural relics, the State Council
and the people's governments of the provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities directly under the Central Government may in accordance
with the pertinent procedures specified in the provisions in Chapter II of
the Law of the People's Republic of China for the Protection of Cultural
Relics, determine the underwater cultural relics protection units and
underwater cultural relics reserves at the national or provincial levels
and publicly announce them.
Within the limits of the underwater cultural relics protection units and
underwater cultural relics reserves, any activities that may jeopardize
the safety of the underwater cultural relics, such as fishing and
demolitions, shall be prohibited.
Article 6
Any units or individuals that have discovered by any means underwater
cultural relics specified in Paragraphs (1) and (2) of Article 2 of these
Regulations shall report promptly to the State Administration for
Protection of Cultural Relics or to the administrative departments for
cultural relics in the localities and those that have been fished up shall
be handed over promptly to the State Administration for Protection of
Cultural Relics or to the administrative departments for cultural relics
in the localities to be properly dealt with.
Any units or individuals that have discovered by any means underwater
cultural relics specified in Paragraph (3) of Article 2 of these
Regulations shall report promptly to the State Administration for
Protection of Cultural Relics or to the administrative departments for
cultural relics in the localities and those that have been fished up shall
be turned in promptly to the State Administration for Protection of
Cultural Relics or to the administrative departments for cultural relics
in the localities to be identified and assessed.
Article 7
Archaeological exploration and excavation activities with respect to
underwater cultural relics shall have, as their objective, the protection
of cultural relics and scientific research. Any units or individuals that
intend to conduct in the waters under Chinese jurisdiction archaeological
exploration or excavation activities with respect to underwater cultural
relics shall apply to the State Administration for Protection of Cultural
Relics and submit the relevant data. Without approval by the State
Administration for Protection of Cultural Relics, no units or individuals
may conduct by any means unauthorized exploration or excavation.
Foreign countries, international organizations and foreign legal persons
or natural persons that are to conduct in the waters under Chinese
jurisdiction archaeological exploration or excavation activities shall do
so in cooperation with the Chinese side and shall submit their application
therefor to the State Administration for Protection of Cultural Relics,
which shall further submit it to the State Council of the People's
Republic of China for special approval.
Article 8
With respect to any units or individuals that have been permitted to
effect archaeological exploration or excavation activities with respect to
underwater cultural relics, if the range of their activities covers water
under the jurisdiction of the harbour superintendancy, the case shall be
reported to the harbour superintendancy for verification and approval and
the harbour superintendancy shall, upon verification and approval,
delineate the safe operation area(s) and put out a navigation notice.
Article 9
Any units or individuals that are effecting archaeological exploration or
excavation activities with respect to underwater cultural relics shall, in
addition to complying with these Regulations, abide by other laws and
regulations of China and accept the administration by the departments
concerned, shall observe rules concerning underwater archaeological
activities, diving and navigation and ensure the safety of the personnel
and the underwater cultural relics, shall prevent the water from
environmental pollution and protect the underwater biological resources
and other natural resources from damage, shall protect all the surface and
underwater facilities and may not obstruct communication and
transportation, fishery production, military drills and other normal
surface and underwater operations and activities.
Article 10
Those who have made outstanding contributions to the protection of
underwater cultural relics, if the circumstances are in conformity with
those specified in the provisions in Article 29 of the Law of the People's
Republic of China for the Protection of Cultural Relics, shall be
commended or rewarded.
Those who, in violation of the provisions in Articles 5, 6 and 7 of these
Regulations, damage underwater cultural relics, or explore, excavate or
dredge up underwater cultural relics without authorization, or hide, share
secretly, traffic in, illicitly sell or illicitly export underwater
cultural relics, if the circumstances are found to be those specified in
the provisions in Articles 30 and 31 of the Law of the People's Republic
of China for the Protection of Cultural Relics, shall be given
administrative sanctions or have their criminal liability investigated in
accordance with the law. With respect to those who violate the provisions
in Article 8 and 9 of these Regulations, if the violation has resulted in
serious consequences, the administrative department for cultural relics
shall, in conjunction with the departments concerned, order the operation
to be suspended and set a deadline for correction or shall give such
administrative sanctions as withdrawing the approval granted, with an
additional imposition of a fine ranging from Renminbi 1,000 yuan to 10,000
yuan.
Article 11
The State Administration for Protection of Cultural Relics shall be
responsible for the interpretation of these Regulations.
Article 12
The rules for the implementation of these Regulations shall be formulated
by the State Administration for Protection of Cultural Relics.
Article 13
These Regulations shall go into effect as of the date of promulgation.